The Bible on Politics
Divine Law, Natural Law, and Human Law
Many liberals will claim that the only Biblical passage on politics is Matthew 22:21: “Give unto Caesar what is Caesar’s, and unto God what is God’s.” Wielding this verse as a knife, liberals dogmatically separate the Church from civil society and civil authority, despite the Magisterium’s repeated and continual rejection of such an interpretation.1 Setting aside the misinterpretation of the verse, there are actually many verses on politics.
Henri De Lubac wrote that the Christianity is essentially obsessed with the salvation of society. Pope Leo XIII taught that the Church, in her pursuit of the salvation of all souls, provides such temporal benefit to society that it would seem as if it were her chief goal. Augustine wrote of the Gospel’s relevance to social life: “Let those who say that the teaching of Christ is hurtful to the State produce such armies as the maxims of Jesus have enjoined soldiers to bring into being; such governors of provinces; such husbands and wives; such parents and children; such masters and servants; such kings; such judges, and such payers and collectors of tribute, as the Christian teaching instructs them to become, and then let them dare to say that such teaching is hurtful to the State. Nay, rather will they hesitate to own that this discipline, if duly acted up to, is the very mainstay of the commonwealth.” Catholic Social Teaching, citing many passages from Scripture, has much to say about political morals and ideals.
In fact, the Bible continually speaks about politics, properly understood.
Politics as Moral Philosophy
If by politics we mean the art and science of ordering the various elements in a community to the common good by the legitimate authority, then the Bible offers many precepts and counsels. For pretty much every political issue that Aristotle addresses in his Politics, the Bible reveals the divine perspective.
Book 1 on the nature of society
Aristotle says that the political community aims at the highest good, but the Bible reveals that the highest good of man is not temporal life, but eternal life: “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavens, as he chose us in him, before the foundation of the world, to be holy and without blemish before him. In love he destined us for adoption to himself through Jesus Christ, in accord with the favor of his will, for the praise of the glory of his grace that he granted us in the beloved.” (Eph 1:3-6). The only political community in which man attains his eternal end is the City of God, as the Bible reveals: “Great is the LORD and greatly to be praised in the city of our God!” (Ps 48:1). Therefore, the temporal end of politics is not absolute but relative to eternal life.
Both Aristotle and the Bible lay the family as the first union and unit of society: “When God created human beings, he made them in the likeness of God; he created them male and female. When they were created, he blessed them and named them humankind.” (Gn 5:1-2)
Aristotle claims that nature implanted man’s social instinct, and the Bible specifies that it was the Divine Author of Nature: “It is not good that the man should be alone. I will make him a help mate.” (Gn 2:18) What is more,
Aristotle states that rulers are naturally so, but the Bible reveals the origin and purpose of civil authority, that it comes from God and is for a citizen’s good: “There is no authority except from God… The authority is God's servant for your good. But if you do what is wrong, you should be afraid, for the authority does not bear the sword in vain! It is the servant of God to execute wrath on the wrongdoer. (Rom 13:1-4)
Aristotle claims that the family is prior to the state in origin, and the Bible proves it by recounting the foundation of the first city: “Cain had intercourse with his wife, and she conceived and bore Enoch. Cain also became the founder of a city, which he named after his son Enoch.” (Gn 4:17)
Book 2 on different existing states
Aristotle examines the quality of several communities based upon what they have in common, but the Bible reveals the strongest kind of union possible: “the unity of the spirit through the bond of peace: one body and one Spirit, as you were also called to the one hope of your call; one Lord, one faith, one baptism; one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all.” (Eph 4:3-6)
While Aristotle examines different nations, Genesis 10 reveals the origin of all the different nations: “These are the clans of Noah’s sons, according to their origins and by their nations. From these the nations of the earth branched out after the flood.” (Gn 10:32)
The Table of Nations from Genesis 10. The sons of Jephet went to Europe, Shem to the Middle East and Asia, and Ham to Africa.
Book 3 on citizenship and possible states
Aristotle defines citizenship around its function, ancestry, location, and virtues. Also emphasizing the importance of civic functions and exhorting citizens to virtues like obedience, the Bible clarifies that citizenship in the City of God is not in an earthly community but a heavenly one: “But our citizenship is in heaven, and from it we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ.” (Phil 3:20). Augustine explains this citizneship in the City of God (XV.1):
Of these two first parents of the human race, then, Cain was the first-born, and he belonged to the city of men; after him was born Abel, who belonged to the city of God. For as in the individual the truth of the apostle’s statement is discerned, “that is not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural, and afterward that which is spiritual,” whence it comes to pass that each man, being derived from a condemned stock, is first of all born of Adam evil and carnal, and becomes good and spiritual only afterwards, when he is grafted into Christ by regeneration: so was it in the human race as a whole. When these two cities began to run their course by a series of deaths and births, the citizen of this world was the first-born, and after him the stranger in this world, the citizen of the city of God, predestinated by grace, elected by grace, by grace a stranger below, and by grace a citizen above.
Book 4 on the constitution of the ideal state
While Aristotle explains the three gubernatorial powers of legislation, execution, and judgment, the Bible reveals that God in his City holds all three powers: “For the LORD is our judge; the LORD is our lawgiver; the LORD is our king; he will save us.” (Is 33:22)
Although the Bible does not discuss the merit of rule by one, the few, or the many, as Aristotle does, the Divine Author does reveal related councils: For example, the Bible speaks against anarchy and for the good of civil authority: Where there is no governor, the people shall fall (Prov 11:14).
Aristotle distinguishes between the various roles in society, like the upper, middle, and lower classes, but the Bible shows how each class has a purpose in the divine design of society: “All these are skilled with their hands, each one an expert at his own work; Without them no city could be lived in, and wherever they stay, they do not go hungry. But they are not sought out for the council of the people, nor are they prominent in the assembly. They do not sit on the judge’s bench, nor can they understand law and justice. They cannot expound discipline or judgment, nor are they found among the rulers. Yet they maintain the fabric of the world, and their concern is for exercise of their skill.” (Sirach 38:31-34)
Book 5 on preserving the ideal state from revolution and tyrants
Aristotle analyzes the various forces that destroy the state, and, though not systematically, the Bible reveals the deepest threat to society: idolatry. “Asa did what was good and right in the sight of the LORD, his God. He removed the illicit altars and the high places, smashed the sacred pillars, and cut down the asherahs.” (2 Chronicles 14:1-2)
Although Aristotle rigorously examines the dangers of social unity, the Bible reveals the central danger: “Righteousness exalts a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people.” (Proverbs 14:34) Isaiah laments: “Ah, sinful nation, a people laden with wickedness… They have forsaken the LORD, spurned the Holy One of Israel, apostatized, Why would you yet be struck, that you continue to rebel? The whole head is sick, the whole heart faint…Your country lies desolate, your cities are burned with fire…” (Is 1:4-7) Apostasy is the ultimate social sin, deserving social death.
Book 6 on organizing the ideal state with ministries
Aristotle examines different departments of the healthy society: markets, buildings, forests, the treasury, contracts, prisons, military, auditors, and religion. To all of these, the Bible has many injunctions. See the Book of Proverbs, Wisdom, and Sirach.
Aristotle acknowledges that social, public worship is a political issue: “fifthly, or rather first, there must be a care of religion which is commonly called worship.” The Bible agrees — Praise the LORD, all nations! Extol him, all peoples! (Ps 117:1) — but it specifies public worship in the form of a liturgy: “Now even the first covenant had regulations for worship and an earthly sanctuary.” (Hebrews 9:1) In the new covenant, the sacramental liturgy also has regulations.
Book 7 on the ends and means of building the ideal state
Aristotle goes through various goods of the body and soul that are necessary to human flourishing. He concludes his discussion by subordinating war to peace, action to contemplation, the useful to the honorable, the irrational desire to reason, and care of the body to care of the soul. The Bible not only illuminates the same order, but also subordinates all temporal flourishing to eternal happiness. “But seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things will be given you besides.” (Mt 6:33)
Book 8 on the education of the ideal citizen
Aristotle expounds a thorough education of the ideal citizen, which the Bible does as well in Proverbs, Wisdom, and Sirach.
Of course, Aristotle speaks only about human societies, but the Bible also reveals truths about the divine society. According to Scripture, human law needs divine law so as to align human society toward their divine end: “To you then, O monarchs, my words are directed, so that you may learn wisdom and not transgress. For they will be made holy who observe holy things in holiness, and those who have been taught them will find a defense.” (Wis 6:9-10)
Clearly, the Bible has a lot to say about the moral philosophy of politics.
Politics as Human Law
If by politics we mean the constitutional form and legal system of a community, then the Bible offers some timely commands to Moses as to how he should organize Ancient Israel. From the Exodus of Egypt to the desert of Sin (Ex 14-17), Moses operated as the prudential judge on a case-by-case basis (ad hoc adjudication). Seeing the tedium of such a system, Moses’s father-in-law, Jethro, suggested that he appoint judges: “The more difficult cases they referred to Moses, but all the lesser cases they settled themselves” (Ex 18:26).
The details of this political structure are explained by Moses in Deuteronomy. Essentially, they had a mixed constitution of the one, the few, and the many. Moses was the monarch, who ruled with the help of a mouthpiece or viceroy, Aaron, who was also the High Priest. Moses ruled with 72 aristocratic governors based upon virtue: “I took from your tribes men who were wise and honorable, and I made them rulers” (Dt 1:15). Those governors were chosen by popular election from among the people: “Give me wise men from among yourselves” (Dt 1:13). The people were organized into 12 tribes according to the 12 Patriarchs — each with their particular function and characteristic: Judah provided the kings, the Levites provided priests, etc. Once they had their political structure, God revealed the Divine Law.
The Divine Law, which is revelation, perfects all other kinds of law. In particular, there are three kinds of Divine Law: “These are the precepts and ceremonies and judgments” (Deut 6:1), and “The commandment is holy and just and good” (Rm 7:12).
Holy ceremonial precepts perfect man’s relationship with eternal law.
Good moral precepts perfect his relationship with natural law.
Just judicial precepts perfect his relationship with human law.
Since the Old Divine Law reaches fulfillment in the New Divine Law, the three perfecting precepts attain their perfection.
Jewish ceremonial precepts become Christian sacraments.
Exterior moral precepts become interior grace. Unique to this perfection, the exterior moral precepts remain in full force, while the jewish ceremonies and Israel’s laws do not continue as Divine Law past their fulfillment in Christ.
Judicial precepts become evangelical counsels.
Since we are concerned with politics, we will focus on the moral and judicial precepts of the Divine Law.
With the political architecture in place, God gave Moses the primary moral covenant law in Exodus 20, the 10 Commandments. Although the natural law bound everyone from Adam to Moses, ignorance blinded man from participation in the eternal law. Thus, the divine moral law illuminates what should have been known of the natural law by human reason, and adds what is known by divine reason.
The first commandment will serve as a good example of how the divine moral law goes beyond mere natural law. To begin with, the first principle of the moral law is known by everyone: pursue the good and avoid evil. From this principle flows precepts, which are distinguished by how they are known.
Primary precepts are obligations known by most through common sense. They are the practical conclusions following inclinations of nature, like the duties of self-preservation, or reproduction and education, or knowing the truth. Regarding the first commandment, the natural law already prescribed monotheism, but the divine law identifies the lone God with the One responsible for bringing the Hebrews out of Egypt: “I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery.” (Ex 20:2).
Secondary precepts are known only by the wise. They are also practical conclusions, but they reach beyond general rules and give particular indications. Back to the first commandment, the natural law prohibits irrational religion, but the divine law goes further to prohibit all non-hebrew religion: “You shall not have other gods beside me” (Ex 20:3).
Tertiary precepts are known wholly and only by the divine. Rather than human principles, these precepts are drawn from divine ones. Although the natural law prohibits superstition, it says nothing about carving images for religious purposes. Nevertheless, God in his wisdom decreed: “You shall not make for yourself a carved image” (Ex 20:4). What is more, the natural law only decrees the immediate effects of a moral act, whereas the divine law foretells their long-lasting effects: “For I, the LORD, your God, am a jealous God, inflicting punishment for their ancestors’ wickedness on the children of those who hate me, down to the third and fourth generation; but showing love down to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments” (Ex 20:5-6).
These three kinds of precepts course throughout the Old Divine Law, especially in Deuteronomy, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom, and Sirach. Returning to Exodus, the organization of the 10 Commandments reveal that the second table is ordered to the first table, love of neighbor to love of God; morals (both ethics and politics) is ordered to worship. The 10 Commandments govern not only personal decisions, but also society. After enumerating them, God tells Moses: “This is what you will say to the Israelites” (Ex 20:22), as if they are addressed to the collective people, not just to individuals.
From moral precepts to judicial ones, Moses segues from the 10 Commandment in chapter 20 to the Covenant Code in chapters 21-23. This code serves as Israel’s common law system, as opposed to the modern statutory system. The code is neither exhaustive nor meant to be. The code itself is the moral and civil precedents that guide the judge’s dispensation of justice. Judges interpret it according to unwritten tradition and common sense. It is a rather simple and short book of law, including both apodictic principles (absolute and general laws) and casuistic precepts (conditional and specific laws).
Although Moses received this code, Israel did not. After the idolatry of the Golden Calf, God gives Moses Deuteronomy, literally “the second law.” These laws expand upon the 10 Commandments — to the point of tedium — as the following chart from Bergsma and Pitre’s Catholic Introduction to the Old Testament shows:
Among Deuteronomy’s many laws, the judicial ones govern the following relations:
Political relations between rulers and subjects
Civic relations between subjects
Foreign relations between subjects and foreigners
Domestic relations between parents and children
These judicial laws of the Old Divine Law bound Israel until the New Divine Law superseded it — “I have not come to abolish the Law, but to fulfill it” (Mt 5:17); “When [Christ] speaks of a “new” covenant, he declares the first one obsolete. And what has become obsolete and has grown old is close to disappearing” (Hebrews 9:13). The nation of Israel found the fulfillment of its Divine judicial laws in the Church of God. Since Christ introduced a new priesthood in the order of Melchizedek, the Divine Law was renewed: “For when there is a change in the priesthood, there is necessarily a change in the law as well” (Hebrews 7:12).
Like Ancient Israel, Christ promulgated constitutional laws in the New Israel, the Church. Regarding the constitutional form of the community, the Divine Founder chose a mixed government much like Ancient Israel.
Just as Moses founded and lead Ancient Israel, so too Christ is the Divine Founder and King of the New Israel.
Just as Aaron served Moses, so too Christ established his vicar and mouthpiece on earth who holds the power of the keys and primacy over the other apostles: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church…I will give you the keys of the kingdom.” (Mt 16:18–19)
Just as the people of Israel divided according to the 12 tribes, so too Christ established the college of 12 apostles, who will judge heaven and earth with Him. Nevertheless, they refer to the successor of Peter whenever there is a difficult case, just as the judges of Israel did. These successors are chosen from among the faithful and with their consent.
Just as 72 elders represented the people of Israel, and just as there are 72 groups in the Table of Nations after the flood (Gn 10), so too Christ sent out the 72 disciples to represent the people of God in every city.
Just as Moses introduced the Old Divine Moral Law in the 10 Commandments, so too Christ introduces the New Divine Moral Law in the Sermon on the Mount. However, while Moses’s law only governed exterior actions, Christ’s law also governs interior ones — “You have heard that it was said…But I say to you.” Those additions concern thoughts and desires as much as actions. Furthermore, Moses promulgated Israel’s chief law (Shema Israel!) to love God with all one’s heart, mind, and soul, and the second law to love others AS ONESELF. Christ, however, promulgates the new chief law to love God and neighbor AS GOD AS HAS LOVED. There is much more to say about this, but let us limit ourself to say that there is a newness to the moral precepts of the Divine Law.
If nature dictates moral precepts, then legitimate authorities dictate judicial precepts, which specify the moral precepts that involve directing men in their relations with one another. In the Old Divine Law, God dictated the judicial precepts of Deuteronomy. In the New Divine Law promulgated in the Sermon on the Mount, God did not dictated judicial precepts (unless we refer to the constitutional precepts of the Church), but he did specify judicial counsels. Thus, the New Law has no judicial precepts but counsels. A precept implies a necessity or duty of justice, but a counsel implies freedom — something beyond the call of duty. God left those specifications of justice to the rules and lawmakers of each polity, and for that reason, the New Law is also called the law of freedom. Yet the specifications of charity, the evangelical counsels, are judicial in the sense that they consist in their directing a man in his relations with his neighbor, property, and spouse: obedience to authority, poverty with property, and chastity with concupiscence.
Although judicial precepts of the Old Divine Law are no longer normative under the New Divine Law, they really existed. Even what does remain in force is a lot.
To conclude: the Bible speaks about politics: it touches upon civil society and civil authority; it perfects eternal, natural, and human law with the precepts of Divine Law; it provides constitutional law and common law for the Ancient and New Israel. What is more, the Divine Law reveals to whom and how civil society should pay the virtue of religion. What the Bible does not speak about is constitutional law or particular human laws of other civil communities. Nevertheless, God provided the natural law and the divine moral law so as to inform their human law.
To say “the Bible does not speak about politics” is just plain wrong.
There is an erroneous interpretation of this verse articulated by the Gallican clergy in 1682, commenting on Mt 22:21: “Therefore, by the command of God, kings and princes cannot be subject to ecclesiastical power in temporal affairs, nor can they be deposed by the authority of the keys of the Church, either directly or indirectly; nor can their subjects be released from loyalty and obedience and be freed from fulfilling their oath of allegiance; and this opinion, which is necessary for public tranquillity, and which is no less useful to the Church than to the Empire, must by every means be retained as being in harmony with the Word of God, the tradition of the Fathers, and the examples of the saints.” Pope Alexander VIII condemned this error in the following manner: "Each and everything that was considered and decreed in the above mentioned assemblies of the Gallican clergy held in the year 1682, both in regard to the extension of the right of regalia and the declaration concerning the ecclesiastical power and the four propositions contained in that declaration, with all and individual mandates, judgments, and confirmations, declarations, epistles, edicts, and decrees edited and published by whatsoever persons, ecclesiastical or lay, in whatever way qualified, and no matter what authority and power they enjoy, even the power which requires individual mention, all these acts, we declare, by the tenor of these letters, to have been from the very beginning, to be now, and always to be, by right itself, null and void, invalid, useless, entirely and wholly lacking in strength and effectiveness, and that no one is bound to their observance or to the observance of anyone of them, even if they have been reinforced by an oath."(Denzinger 1322-1326). See also the following condemnations of the separation of Church and State in the Syllabus of Errors: 37. National churches, withdrawn from the authority of the Roman pontiff and altogether separated, can be established. 55. The Church ought to be separated from the State, and the State from the Church.